Chapter 3

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# Chapter 3:  
# Police Organizations

[Justin Nix](https://jnix.netlify.app)  
*School of Criminology and Criminal Justice*  
*University of Nebraska Omaha*

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.white[February 15, 2022]

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# First, let's count them up

How many police departments exist in the United States?

- According to the [Bureau of Justice Statistics](https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/lpd16p.pdf):

|Agency Type             |   N   |
|:-----------------------|------:|
|   Federal              |83     |
|   Tribal               |280    |
|   State                |49     |
|   Local                |12,261 |
|   Sheriff              |3,012  |
|   Special jurisdiction*|1,733  |
|   Other*               |638    |
|   **Total**            |18,056 |

.small[\* From [CSLLEA (2008)](https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm/dataonline/content/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=2216)]

???

Most local agencies are very small (fewer than 25 officers)

*Other* agencies are primarily county constable agencies in Texas

All told, there are ~700K full-time, sworn police officers at the state and local levels
- Another 350K full-time civilian employees
- And another 100K part-time sworn/civilian employees

Roughly 132K federal employees

As we've discussed, there is no single agency that oversees all of these 18K agencies
- Their powers and responsibilities are determined/bounded by their jurisdiction

- Legal
  - Geographic

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# Federal Law Enforcement

- Part of Executive Branch

- Jurisdiction:

- United States
  
--

- Specific set of federal crimes defined by Congress
  
--

- Most are housed within [DOJ](https://www.justice.gov/) or [DHS](https://www.dhs.gov/)

???

Federal agencies are housed within four major US cabinet departments:
- DOJ, DHS, Treasury and Interior

Of particular interest to us are agencies that fall under DOJ and DHS

- [Homeland Security Act (2002)](https://www.congress.gov/bill/107th-congress/house-bill/5005)

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<p class="caption">(Image by Ray Young on Flikr)</p>
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???

Homeland Security Act created the DHS and reorganized the federal agencies

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# Federal Law Enforcement

## DHS Agencies

### Secret Service

- Counterfeiting and money laundering

???

Created in 1865 to combat counterfeiting during the post-Civil War era

- Protecting POTUS and various other government officials

???

Began informally protecting President Cleveland in 1894
- After McKinley was assassinated, this became one of their official duties

- Uniformed division protects the White House

???

Secret Service protects POTUS and his family, VP, former presidents, major candidates, and visiting heads of foreign governments
- As well as our national treasures

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# Federal Law Enforcement

## DHS Agencies

### Customs and Border Protection (CBP)

???

After 9/11, the entire US Border Patrol was combine with portions of the US Customs Service, US Immigration, and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

- More than 60K employees; 21K of which work for Border Patrol

- Protects borders and ports of entry

- Terrorism, drug trafficking, human trafficking

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# Federal Law Enforcement

## DHS Agencies

### Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)

- Primary focus: undocumented persons

???

ICE is district from CBP, though related
- Whereas CBP is about border protection and customs checks; ICE focuses primarily on detecting and removing undocumented persons

- Main components:

- Homeland security investigations
  
--

- Enforcement and removal operations
  
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# Federal Law Enforcement

## DOJ Agencies

### Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

- The federal government's "general" law enforcement agency

???

Created by **Executive Order** in 1908 by Teddy Roosevelt; first known as the *Bureau of Investigation*
- Purpose was to provide detective services to the Executive Branch
  - And specifically, at one point, to find Communists
  
Revamped in the 1930s under the leadership of J. Edgar Hoover after allegations of corruption

Since then, their responsibilities have grown steadily

- Since 9/11, terrorism and cybercrime have been prioritized

???

Came under fire in 2002 for not properly handling information that could have perhaps prevented the 9/11 attacks

- Other services:

- FBI Crime Lab
  
???

State/local agencies can have FBI analyze DNA, explosives, fibers, tool marks, drugs, etc… free of charge. 
- National Academy is also offered by FBI free of tuition
  
--

- National Crime Information Center (NCIC)
  
???

**NCIC**: Data pertaining to stolen property, missing persons, fugitives, etc. Available to law enforcement in US and Canada
- Vehicle parts, guns, plates, etc…
  
--

- Publishes [Uniform Crime Report](https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s) and [NIBRS](https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr/nibrs)
  
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# Federal Law Enforcement

## DOJ Agencies

### U.S. Marshals Service

- Oldest federal law enforcement agency

???

Established via the **Judiciary Act of 1789**

- George Washington appointed 13 Marshals - one for each state

- There are 94 marshals and some 3,700 deputy marshals

- Why 94?
  
???

Today there are 94 marshals - one for each federal court district
  
--

- Main functions:

???

Responsibilities have been sort of all over the place:
- General law enforcement on the western frontier
- The Marshals were responsible for enforcing *prohibition laws*
- Served as *courtroom bailiffs* between the 1920s and 60s
- In 1979, they were given the responsibility of *apprehending federal fugitives*
- *Witness Protection Program* created in 1971
- *Asset Forfeiture* (1980s)
  - Proceeds used to compensate victims, supplement funding for law enforcement initiatives and support community programs.

- Judicial security
  
???

Including transporting 360K prisoners per year to and from court/detention facilities

- Fugitive investigation
  
???

They pursue about 36K fugitives per year
  
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# Federal Law Enforcement

## DOJ Agencies

### Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF)

- Began as a unit within the IRS in 1862

- Became its own agency in 1972

- Originally housed under Treasury but moved to DOJ in 2003

- Basically a tax-collection, enforcement, and regulatory arm of DOJ

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# Federal Law Enforcement

## DOJ Agencies

### Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)

- Established in 1973

???

Arguably, the DEA's roots go back to 1914 and the passage of the **Harrison Act**
- President Wilson made it unlawful for any "unregistered person" to possess heroin, cocaine, opium, morphine, or by-products

- The *Bureau of Narcotics* was established in 1930 under the Treasury

- But the DEA as we know it today was established by President Nixon to fight the "War on Drugs"

- Controlled substance laws and regulations

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# State Law Enforcement

???

State police were developed to deal with growing crime in the non-urban areas of the US
- Including people fleeing beyond jurisdictional boundaries
  - Which became even more of a problem after the automobile was invented

So at first, state police patrolled rural and unincorporated areas

- Generally responsible for:

- Highway safety
  
--

- Law enforcement in more remote areas
  
--

- Technical support for local agencies
  
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# State Law Enforcement

## Centralized Model

- AKA *state police* or *state patrol*

???

First adopted by Pennsylvania

State agencies assist local agencies as needed
- Maintain centralized record systems
- Patrol our state highways and interstates
- Offer training to local agencies

- E.G., [Nebraska State Patrol](https://statepatrol.nebraska.gov/)
  
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<img src="nsp_tornado.jpg" alt="(Photo by Trooper Clint Zost)" width="50%" />
<p class="caption">(Photo by Trooper Clint Zost)</p>
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???

The NSP was formed in 1937 to deal with the rising problem of traffic crashes on state roads
- Today they have two broad functions:
  - **Field services**: troopers, dog handlers, aviation support pilots
  - **Investigative services**: alcohol, tobacco, and gambling; auto fraud; domestic violence; ICAC; bomb squad; NE Information Analysis Center

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# State Law Enforcement

## Decentralized Model

???

States in the south often have a more decentralized model
Usually have other adjunct, state-level agencies
- E.G., State Wildlife Commission, Board of Alcohol Beverage Control

- Clearer distinction between *highway safety* and *other state-level functions*

- E.G., [Department of Public Safety](https://scdps.sc.gov/) and [SLED](https://www.sled.sc.gov/) in South Carolina

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# Local Policing

- Decentralized and fragmented

???
In fact, some towns/communities contract with private security
- Others have no municipal department, and just depend on the county sheriff

It's expensive to hire, train, and pay a police officer
- Many small towns just can't afford much on their budgets

- E.G., there are **227** local law enforcement agencies [in Nebraska](https://www.nebraska.gov/crime_commission/directory/index.cgi)

- Including **9** in Douglas County alone
      
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## Municipal Police

???

Recall there are >12K municipal police departments in the US

- Authorized, funded, and operated within the limits of own jurisdictions
  
--

- Each jurisdiction has its own goals and policies
  
--

- Most employ [fewer than 25 officers](https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/lpd16p.pdf)

???

Responsibilities
- Enforce traffic laws
- Investigate accidents, crimes
- Routine patrol
- First responders
- Answer calls for service

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## Municipal Police

???

Most are small
- 75% employ < 25 officers
- 50% employ < 10 officers
- Meanwhile, only 5% employ > 100 officers

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## Municipal Police

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# Local Policing

## Sheriff's Departments

???

The sheriff answers **directly** to the voters
- Recall chiefs are one step removed from voters - they answer directly to the mayor/council/city manager.

Responsibilities include:

1. Policing rural areas

- Unincorporated areas  
  - Small towns that don't have their own agency
  
--

2. Operate county  jail

3. Court protection (bailiffs)

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# Local Policing

## Special Jurisdiction Agencies

- About 57K officers working for ~1700 such agencies

- Examples:

- Colleges and universities
  
???

Note that your book refers to campus/transit police as local agencies. I disagree - they're special jurisdictions IMO. 
  
--

- State and county parks
  
--

- Lakes and recreation areas
  
--

- Airports, trains/subways, harbors
  
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# Police Organizations

- Highly bureaucratized

???

Every organization, public or private, follows some sort of **chain of command**. 
- Private companies tend to have a CEO, a president, or both at the helm. 
- Schools have principals. 
- In SCCJ, we have a director, who reports to the Dean of CPACS, who reports to the Senior Vice Chancellor, who reports to the Chancellor.

For police, it's the chief or the sheriff at the top of the department.

- See for example [OPD](https://public.powerdms.com/OPDEP1/tree/documents/2547925) and [LAPD](https://lapdonlinestrgeacc.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/lapdonlinemedia/2021/12/Org_chart_DP12_11232021.pdf) organizational charts...
  
???

And take note of the **span of control** associated with each position in the chain of command.
- I.E., the number of subordinates each person has. 
  
--

- Different from private organizations:

- Exist within political environments
  
--
  
  - Not for profit
  
--

- Rules and regulations often limit creativity and flexibility

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# Police Organizations

## Staff vs. Line Duties

### Staff

- Non-sworn personnel who provide assistance to sworn-personnel

- Administrative assistants
  
  - Human resources
  
  - Crime analysts
  
  - 911 dispatchers
  
  - Records bureau
  
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# Police Organizations

## Staff vs. Line Duties

### Sworn Personnel

- All the commissioned peace officers within the organization

- From chief or sheriff down to front-line officers or deputies

- Wide range of responsibilities (recall our discussion from [Week 1](https://jnix.netlify.app/slides/crcj2030_first_day/#14))

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# Police Organizations

- Sir Robert Peel advocated for a military structure

- In the US, our agencies often referred to as *quasi-military*

- **Frederick Taylor**, *Scientific Management Theory*

???

AKA *Taylorism*  
Taylor: Use data and human strengths to maximize output
- Heavily focused on **individuals**
  - Analyze and synthesize workflows to improve economic efficiency and labor productivity
  
--

- **Max Weber**, *Bureaucratic Theory*

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<img src="weber.jpg" alt="(Hacerahsen, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons)" width="20%" />
<p class="caption">(Hacerahsen, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons)</p>
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???

Weber: Use hierarchies and tight job roles to maximize efficiency

???

The point is to **maximize productivity** through **minimal required effort**.

- E.G., *specialization* is meant to ensure that people primarily work on tasks they are familiar with. 
  - Good where there are a lot of repetitive tasks
- Hierarchy of authority (as we've seen)
- Formalization (i.e., rules to ensure uniformity)
- Impersonality of management
  - Decisions should be made with best interests of **organization** in mind, without regard for individuals
- Merit-based personnel decisions

- ***What do you think of structuring organizations this way?***

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# Police Organizations

- **Contemporary organizational theory**

- Line-level officers should have some say in decision-making and planning
  
  - i.e., *participatory management*
  
--

- ***Why?***
  
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- **Contingency theory**

- Recognizes the difference between *repetitive* and *non-repetitive* tasks

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# Have a great day! 😄

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<p class="caption">(photo by GPA Photo Archive on Flickr)</p>
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### *If you even dream of beating me, you'd better wake up and apologize.*

<div style="text-align: right"> - Muhammad Ali </div>